Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Excerpts from de Anima:
("Having a Soul is Being Alive")
1. All things that have souls are alive.
All things that are alive have souls.
2. But the term "alive" is used in many senses, depending on the referent.
For example, thinking, perceiving, movement, nutrition, growth, and decay.
Plants: Animals:
grow and decay grow and decay
obtain nutrition obtain nutrition
have sensations
locomotion (higher animals)
Human Beings:
grow and decay
obtain nutrition
have sensations
locomotion
think
(the self nutritive ability is the most basic psychic power)
Anything that is alive has a means for obtaining that which it needs in order to grow and survive.
("The Inseparability of Soul from Body")
Aristotle begins with a discussion of the fundamental aspects of existence (what is). We use "what is" to refer to at least three different things.
Consider "what is" in terms of its very basic elements:
a. matter - Matter is the essential substance of everything that "is." In an unparticularized state, matter has no form. But any instance of matter has form. However, this is distinct from any form it might take in the future. Matter is POTENTIAL. (e.g. Take a block of wood. It is not completely unformed matter. But it lacks the form necessary for it to function as a table.)
b. form - this allows matter to be defined as a distinct thing. For example, it may be the properties, which in relationship with one another identify this bit of matter as a specific thing. Form is ACTUAL
There are two senses of "actual:"
1. possession (e.g. possession of knowledge)
2. exercise of possessed qualities (e.g. exercise of knowledge)
Following this model:
a. The body without the soul is matter. The physical body, alone, cannot be the soul. It is simply that which provides the potential for the activity of the soul.
b. The soul is form. The soul is the form which allows the body to live. It provides organization which allows the body to function.
The soul is actuality in the sense of possession. The body must have a soul before it can act.
Example of an eye: An eye contains the power of sight, even if it has not yet seen anything, as long as it has the potential within itself to function in that manner. Similarly, the body contains the power of life (the soul) as long as the potential exists , even if it has not yet had the chance to exercise it.
Therefore, the soul appears to be inseparable from the body. While the body may be separable from the soul, it ceases to be what it was when combined with the soul. For example, once a human being permanently loses the capacity to think, it is no longer a human being. It may still be alive in the plant or animal sense however.
Good is that at which all things aim.
Good = activity of the soul in accordance with the most perfect virtue = True Happiness (well-being or to live well)
What is the Good for Humans? Happiness = An activity of the soul in accordance with the best and most complete virtue (in accordance with reason) in a complete life.
What is good for the individual is good for the state. But a good state is nobler than a good individual. Reason must rule over passion in both.
Man = Reason
Woman = Passion
Man ought to rule woman.
Those who cannot apply reason are slaves by nature. Those who are superior in virtue should rule.
Virtue varies with the individual and the situation.
Virtue is the mean between two extremes, excess and deficit.